Common Rail Type Fuel Injection System

 

Electronic control common rail type fuel injection system drives an integrated fuel pump at an ultrahigh pressure to distribute fuel to each injector per cylinder through a common rail.

 

This enables optimum combustion to generate big horsepower, and reduce PM* (diesel plume) and fuel consumption.

Bosch will supply the complete common-rail injection system for the high-performance 12-cylinder engine introduced by Peugeot Sport for its latest racing car. The system comprises high-pressure pumps, a fuel rail shared by all cylinders (i.e. a common rail), piezo in-line injectors, and the central control unit which compiles and processes all relevant sensor data.

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Filed Under: Automobile Engineering on Friday, January 31, 2014 1 Comment

DISI Turbo or Direct Injection Spark Ignition Technology

DISI includes a whole new set of innovations for gasoline engines. To mention a few, direct injection (including cooling the air-gasoline mixture), a new combustion chamber geometry, variable timing technology, and nanotechnology for the catalyst. This all makes the engines consume 20 percent less while getting 15 to 20 percent better performance.

Further developments for its diesels: new direct injection technology (most European automakers are switching to piezoelectric injectors), making the engine lighter, DPF, and urea technology to reduce NOx emissions

Mazda’s DISI* engines balance sporty driving with outstanding environment performance. With the next generation engine in the series, we are aiming for a 15% ~ 20% improvement in dynamic performance and a 20% increase in fuel economy (compared with a Mazda 2.0L gasoline engine). Based on the direct injection system, we aim to reduce all energy losses (see figure on the right) and improve thermal efficiency through innovative engineering in a variety of technological areas. Among these technologies we are paying particular attention to direct injection, combustion control, variable valve system technology and catalyst technology. Also, among the various fuels on the market, we are studying the use of flex-fuel.

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Variable Turbochargers Geometry (VTG)

Variable geometry turbochargers (VGTs) are a family of turbochargers, usually designed to allow the effective aspect ratio (sometimes called A/R Ratio) of the turbo to be altered as conditions change. This is done because optimum aspect ratio at low engine speeds is very different from that at high engine speeds. If the aspect ratio is too large, the turbo will fail to create boost at low speeds; if the aspect ratio is too small, the turbo will choke the engine at high speeds, leading to high exhaust manifold pressures, high pumping losses, and ultimately lower power output. By altering the geometry of the turbine housing as the engine accelerates, the turbo’s aspect ratio can be maintained at its optimum. Because of this, VGTs have a minimal amount of lag, have a low boost threshold, and are very efficient at higher engine speeds. VGTs do not require a waste gate.

Most common designs
The two most common implementations include a ring of aerodynamically-shaped vanes in the turbine housing at the turbine inlet. Generally for light duty engines (passenger cars, race cars, and light commercial vehicles) the vanes rotate in unison to vary the gas swirl angle and the cross sectional area. Generally for heavy duty engines the vanes do not rotate, but instead the axial width of the inlet is selectively blocked by an axially sliding wall (either the vanes are selectively covered by a moving slotted shroud, or the vanes selectively move vs a stationary slotted shroud). Either way the area between the tips of the vanes changes, leading to a variable aspect ratio.

Actuation
Often the vanes are controlled by a membrane actuator identical to that of a waste gate, however increasingly electric servo actuation is used. Hydraulic actuators have also been used in some applications.

Main suppliers

Several companies supply the rotating vane type of variable geometry turbocharger, including Garrett (Honeywell), Borg Warner and MHI (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries). The rotating vane design is mostly limited to small engines and/or to light duty applications (passenger cars, race cars and light commercial vehicles). The only supplier of the sliding vane type of variable geometry turbocharger is Cummins Turbo Technologies (Holset), who are effectively the sole supplier of variable geometry turbochargers for applications involving large engines and heavy duty use (i.e. trucks and off highway applications).

Other common uses
In trucks, VG turbochargers are also used to control the ratio of exhaust re-circulated back to the engine inlet (they can be controlled to selectively increase the exhaust manifold pressure exceeds the inlet manifold pressure, which promotes exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)). Although excessive engine back pressure is detrimental to overall fuel economy, ensuring a sufficient EGR rate even during transient events (e.g. gear changes) can be sufficient to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions down to that required by emissions legislation (e.g. Euro 5 for Europe and EPA 10 for the USA).

Another use for the sliding vane type of turbocharger is as downstream engine exhaust brake (non-decompression type), so that an extra exhaust throttle valve isn’t needed. Also the mechanism can be deliberately modified to reduce the turbine efficiency in a predefined position. This mode can be selected to sustain a raised exhaust temperature to promote "light-off" and "regeneration" of a diesel particulate filter (this involves heating the carbon particles stuck in the filter until they oxidize away in a semi-self sustaining reaction – rather like the self-cleaning process some ovens offer). Actuation of a VG turbocharger for EGR flow control or to implement braking or regeneration modes generally requires hydraulic or electric servo actuation.

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Turbocharger

 

A turbocharger is actually a type of supercharger. Originally, the turbocharger was called a "turbo super charger." Obviously, the name was shortened out of convenience.

A turbocharger’s purpose is to compress the oxygen entering a car’s engine, increasing the amount of oxygen that enters and thereby increasing the power output. Unlike the belt-driven supercharger that is normally thought of when one hears the word "supercharger," the turbocharger is powered by the car’s own exhaust gases. In other words, a turbocharger takes a by-product of the engine that would otherwise be useless, and uses it to increase the car’s horsepower.

Cars without a turbocharger or supercharger are called normally aspirated. Normally aspirated cars draw air into the engine through an air filter; the air then passes through a meter, which monitors and regulates the amount of air that enters the system. The air is then delivered to the engine’s combustion chambers, along with a controlled amount of fuel from the carburetor or fuel injectors.

In a turbocharged engine, however, the air is compressed so that more oxygen will fit in the combustion chamber, dramatically increasing the burning power of the engine. The turbocharger is composed of two main parts: the compressor, which compresses the air in the intake; and the turbine, which draws the exhaust gases and uses them to power the compressor. Another commonly used term in relation to turbochargers is boost, which refers to the amount of pressure the air in the intake is subjected to; in other words, the more compressed the air is, the higher the boost.

Although the increase in power is advantageous to the car — and likely a source of enjoyment for the driver — a turbocharger has its drawbacks. First and foremost, a turbocharged engine must have a lower compression ratio than a normally aspirated engine. For this reason, one cannot simply put a turbocharger on an engine that was intended for normal aspiration without seriously undermining the life and performance of the engine. Also, a lower compression ratio means the engine will run less efficiently at low power.

Another major drawback of a turbocharger is the phenomenon known as turbo lag. Because the turbocharger runs on exhaust gases, the turbine requires a build-up of exhaust before it can power the compressor; this means that the engine must pick up speed before the turbocharger can kick in. Additionally, the inlet air grows hotter as it is compressed, reducing its density, and thereby its efficiency in the combustion chamber; a radiator-like device called an intercooler is often used to counter this effect in turbocharged engines.

Turbo lag

Turbo lag is the time required to change power output in response to a throttle change, noticed as a hesitation or slowed throttle response when accelerating from idle as compared to a naturally aspirated engine. This is due to the time needed for the exhaust system and turbocharger to generate the required boost. Inertia, friction, and compressor load are the primary contributors to turbo lag. Superchargers do not suffer this problem, because the turbine is eliminated due to the compressor being directly powered by the engine.
Turbocharger applications can be categorized into to those that require changes in output power (such as automotive) and those that do not (such as marine, aircraft, commercial automotive, industrial, engine-generators, and locomotives). While important to varying degrees, turbo lag is most problematic in applications that require rapid changes in power output. Engine designs reduce lag in a number of ways:

• Lowering the rotational inertia of the turbocharger by using lower radius parts and ceramic and other lighter materials
• Changing the turbine's aspect ratio
• Increasing upper-deck air pressure (compressor discharge) and improving wastegate response
• Reducing bearing frictional losses (e.g., using a foil bearing rather than a conventional oil bearing)
• Using variable-nozzle or twin-scroll turbochargers
• Decreasing the volume of the upper-deck piping
• Using multiple turbos sequentially or in parallel
• Using an Antilag system
• Using a turbo spool valve to increase exhaust gas flow speed to the (twin-scroll) turbine

Boost threshold

The boost threshold of a turbo system is the lower bound of the region within which the compressor operates. Below a certain rate of flow, a compressor produces insignificant boost. This limits boost at a particular RPM, regardless of exhaust gas pressure. Newer turbocharger and engine developments have steadily reduced boost thresholds.
Electrical boosting ("E-boosting") is a new technology under development. It uses an electric motor to bring the turbo up to operating speed quicker than possible using available exhaust gases. An alternative to e-boosting is to completely separate the turbine and compressor into a turbine-generator and electric-compressor as in the hybrid turbocharger. This makes compressor speed independent of turbine speed. In 1981, a similar system that used a hydraulic drive system and overspeed clutch arrangement accelerated the turbocharger of the MV Canadian Pioneer (Doxford 76J4CR engine)^.
Turbochargers start producing boost only when a certain amount of kinetic energy is present in the exhaust gasses. Without adequate exhaust gas flow to spin the turbine blades, the turbo cannot produce the necessary force needed to compress the air going into the engine. The boost threshold is determined by the engine displacement, engine rpm, throttle opening, and the size of the turbo. The operating speed (rpm) at which there is enough exhaust gas momentum to compress the air going into the engine is called the "boost threshold rpm". Reducing the "boost threshold rpm" can improve throttle response.

Key components of a turbocharger

The turbocharger has three main components:

1. The turbine, which is almost always a radial inflow turbine
2. The compressor, which is almost always a centrifugal compressor
3. The center housing/hub rotating assembly

Many turbocharger installations use additional technologies, such as wastegates, intercooling and blow-off valves.

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Supercharger

Engines combust (burn) fuel and use the energy of that combustion to do work. The more fuel that is combusted in any given time then the more energy is available to carry out the engines task. Fuel requires air (or the oxygen contained within air) to burn so if there isn’t enough air mixed with the fuel it will not burn. This also means that the amount of air entering an engine determines how much fuel can be burnt and consequently how much energy (or power) an engine can produce. Superchargers are essentially an air pump designed to cram extra air into an engine allowing it to combust more fuel than would otherwise be possible.

Mercedes pioneered automotive superchargers on their race cars during the 1920’s. These were simple reciprocating compressors attached to the engine by an electrically operated clutch. A switch activated by the accelerator pedal turned the pump on when extra power (full throttle) was required. A flurry of engineering endeavor ensued in order to reign in Mercedes advantage on the racetrack. Within a few short years most of the basic designs for modern superchargers had appeared.

During the 1930’s superchargers were largely the preserve of marine engines, aircraft and race vehicles but gradually found their way into commercial diesel engines by the 1950’s. It has been common for truck engines to be turbo supercharged (a.k.a. turbocharged) for decades but car engines originally had difficulty in effectively employing this technology.

Superchargers mostly fall into one of two categories, mechanically driven superchargers and turbo superchargers driven by exhaust gasses. A third category is starting to make an appearance and that is electrically powered superchargers.

Turbo superchargers (a.k.a. turbochargers or turbo’s) are relatively compact, lightweight and efficient but suffer from turbo lag and heat stress. By turbo lag we mean the amount of time it takes for the turbo’s rotor to speed up to full efficiency. Some of the earliest turbo charged vehicles took so long for the turbo to produce a usable amount of boost that they were all but useless. Modern turbo chargers are much better in this regard but turbo lag is still a problem. Heat is another bane of turbo chargers. Exhaust gasses are extremely hot and can cause so much heat to build up in the turbo that oil will burn and congeal within its galleries leading to a bearing failure. This is why many turbo chargers have a turbo timer. The timer will cause an engine to continue idling for a few minutes after it is switched off allowing excess heat to be dissipated.

Mechanically driven superchargers usually don’t suffer from turbo lag and can often produce more boost than an exhaust driven charger (turbo). On the negative side they are generally bulky, heavy, and have a cumbersome drive mechanism (usually belt drive). Furthermore most chargers of this type have to supply air at all engine speeds and loads making them difficult to match various engine conditions precisely.

As our supercharger is electrically driven we have devoted an entire article to the advantages and disadvantages of this type.

Heat exchangers (intercoolers) are frequently used in conjunction with superchargers. Compressing air increases its temperature thus making it less dense. By re-cooling the compressed volume of air before it enters, density is increased allowing even more air to be forced into the engine. Intercoolers are more important for turbo superchargers as there are two heating sources present, the act of compression and heat from exhaust gasses both increase air temperature.

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Filed Under: Automobile Engineering on Thursday, January 30, 2014 2 Comments

Working of Fuel Cell Car

Fuel Cell Stacks

This is the heart of the hydrogen fuel cell car—the fuel cell stacks. Their maximum output is 86 kilowatts, or about 107 HP. Because hydrogen fuel cell stacks produce power without combustion, they can be up to twice as efficient as internal combustion engines. They also produce zero carbon dioxide and other pollutants. For more information on the stacks.

Fuel Cell Cooling System

This has several parts. Perched at an angle at the front of the vehicle is a large radiator for the fuel cell system, while two radiators for the motor and transmission lie ahead of the front wheels below the headlights. The car also has a cooling pump located near the fuel cell stacks to stabilize temperature within the stacks.

Ultra capacitor

This unit serves as a supplementary power source to the fuel cell stack. Like a large battery, the ultra capacitor recovers and stores energy generated during deceleration and braking. It uses this energy to provide a "power assist" during startup and acceleration.

Hydrogen Tanks

Space in a car is limited, yet hydrogen is the most dispersive element in the universe and normally requires lots of room. A challenge for manufacturers is how to compress the gas into tanks small enough to fit in a compact car and yet still provide enough fuel for hundreds of miles of driving between refueling. The two high-pressure hydrogen tanks in this vehicle can hold up to 3.75 kilograms of hydrogen compressed to roughly 5,000 PSI—enough to enable an EPA-rated 190 miles of driving before refueling, the manufacturer says.

Electric Motor

(General area only—motor not visible) The electric motor offers a maximum output of 80 kilowatts, enabling a top speed of about 93 miles per hour. The manufacturer says this vehicle can also start in subfreezing temperatures (down to about -4°F), a perennial problem in fuel cell prototypes. Being electric, the engine and the car as a whole are quiet, with none of the vibration or exhaust noise of a gas-powered automobile.

Air Pump

(General area only—air pump not visible) Run by a high-voltage electric motor, this pump supplies air at the appropriate pressure and flow rate to the fuel cell stacks. The air, in turn, mixes with the stored hydrogen to create electricity.

Humidifier

The humidifier monitors and maintains the level of humidity that the fuel cell stack needs to achieve peak operating efficiency. It does this by recovering some of the water from the electrochemical reaction that occurs within the fuel cell stack and recycling it for use in humidification.

Power Control Unit

(General area only—power control unit not visible) This controls the vehicle’s electrical systems, including the air and cooling pumps as well as output from the fuel cell stacks, electric motor, and ultra capacitor.

Cabin

With the fuel cell stacks hidden beneath the floor and the hydrogen tanks and the ultra capacitor beneath and behind the rear seats, respectively, the four-passenger cabin is isolated from all hydrogen and high-voltage lines. Hydrogen gas is colorless and odorless, and it burns almost invisibly. In case of a leak, therefore, the manufacturer has placed hydrogen sensors throughout the vehicle to provide warning and automatic gas shut-off. Also, in the event of a collision, the electrical source power line shuts down.

Hydrogen Filler Mouth

(Not visible—located on other side of vehicle) Drivers would fill the car with hydrogen just as they do with gasoline, through an opening on the side of the vehicle. The main difference is that a fuel cell car must be grounded before fueling to rid the car of hazardous static electricity. For this reason, this model has two side-by-side openings, with the latch to open the hydrogen filler mouth located inside the opening for the grounding wire. The manufacturer says filling up this model’s two tanks at a hydrogen filling station would take about three minutes.

Note

The limited-production vehicle seen in this feature is a Honda 2005 FCX, which is typical of the kinds of hydrogen fuel cell automobiles that some major automakers are now researching and developing. With such vehicles at present costing about $1 million apiece, none is currently for sale, though hundreds of fuel cell cars are now undergoing tests on the world’s roads.

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Kinetic Energy Recovery System (KERS) in F1

The introduction of Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS) is one of the most significant technical introductions for the Formula One Race. Formula One have always lived with an environmentally unfriendly image and have lost its relevance to road vehicle technology. This eventually led to the introduction of KERS.

KERS is an energy saving device fitted to the engines to convert some of the waste energy produced during braking into more useful form of energy. The system stores the energy produced under braking in a reservoir and then releases the stored energy under acceleration. The key purpose of the introduction was to significantly improve lap time and help overtaking. KERS is not introduced to improve fuel efficiency or reduce weight of the engine. It is mainly introduced to improve racing performance.

KERS is the brainchild of FIA president Max Mosley. It is a concrete initiative taken by F1 to display eco-friendliness and road relevance of the modern F1 cars. It is a hybrid device that is set to revolutionize the Formula One with environmentally friendly, road relevant, cutting edge technology.

Components of KERS

The three main components of the KERS are as follows:

• An electric motor positioned between the fuel tank and the engine is connected directly to the engine crankshaft to produce additional power.
• High voltage lithium-ion batteries used to store and deliver quick energy.
• A KERS control box monitors the working of the electric motor when charging and releasing energy.

A – Electric motor

B – Electronic Control Unit

C – Battery Pack

Working Principle of KERS

Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems or KERS works on the basic principle of physics that states, “Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be endlessly converted.”

When a car is being driven it has kinetic energy and the same energy is converted into heat energy on braking. It is the rotational force of the car that comes to stop in case of braking and at that time some portion of the energy is also wasted. With the introduction of KERS system the same unused energy is stored in the car and when the driver presses the accelerator the stored energy again gets converted to kinetic energy. According to the F1 regulations, the KERS system gives an extra 85 bhp to the F1 cars in less than seven seconds.

This systems take waste energy from the car’s braking process, store it and then reuse it to temporarily boost engine power. This and the following diagram show the typical placement of the main components at the base of the fuel tank, and illustrate the system’s basic functionality – a charging phase and a boost phase. In the charging phase,

kinetic energy from the rear brakes (1)

is captured by an electric alternator/motor (2),

controlled by a central processing unit (CPU) (3),

which then charges the batteries (4).

 

In the boost phase, the electric alternator/motor gives the stored energy back to the engine in a continuous stream when the driver presses a boost button on the steering wheel. This energy equates to around 80 horsepower and may be used for up to 6.6 seconds per lap. The location of the main KERS components at the base of the fuel tank reduces fuel capacity (typically 90-100kg in 2008 ) by around 15kg, enough to influence race strategy, particularly at circuits where it was previously possible to run just one stop. The system also requires additional radiators to cool the batteries. Mechanical KERS, as opposed to the electrical KERS illustrated here, work on the same principle, but use a flywheel to store and re-use the waste energy.

Types of KERS

There are basically two types of KERS system:

Electronic KERS

Electronic KERS supplied by Italian firm Magneti Marelli is a common system used in F1 by Red Bull, Toro Rosso, Ferrari, Renault, and Toyota.

The key challenge faced by this type of KERS system is that the lithium ion battery gets hot and therefore an additional ducting is required in the car. BMW has used super-capacitors instead of batteries to keep the system cool.
With this system when brake is applied to the car a small portion of the rotational force or the kinetic energy is captured by the electric motor mounted at one end of the engine crankshaft. The key function of the electric motor is to charge the batteries under barking and releasing the same energy on acceleration. This electric motor then converts the kinetic energy into electrical energy that is further stored in the high voltage batteries. When the driver presses the accelerator electric energy stored in the batteries is used to drive the car.

Electro-Mechanical KERS

The Electro-Mechanical KERS is invented by Ian Foley. The system is completely based on a carbon flywheel in a vacuum that is linked through a CVT transmission to the differential. With this a huge storage reservoir is able to store the mechanical energy and the system holds the advantage of being independent of the gearbox. The braking energy is used to turn the flywheel and when more energy is required the wheels of the car are coupled up to the spinning flywheel. This gives a boost in power and improves racing performance.

Limitations of KERS

Though KERS is one of the most significant introductions for Formula One it has some limitations when it comes to performance and efficiency. Following are some of the primary limitations of the KERS:

• Only one KERS can be equipped to the existing engine of a car.
• 60 kw is the maximum input and output power of the KERS system.
• The maximum energy released from the KERS in one lap should not exceed 400 kg.
• The energy recovery system is functional only when the car is moving.
• Energy released from the KERS must remain under complete control of the driver.
• The recovery system must be controlled by the same electronic control unit that is used for controlling the engine, transmission, clutch, and differential.
• Continuously variable transmission systems are not permitted for use with the KERS.
• The energy recovery system must connect at one point in the rear wheel drive train.
• If in case the KERS is connected between the differential and the wheel the torque applied to each wheel must be same.
• KERS can only work in cars that are equipped with only one braking system.

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Chasis Frame

Chassis is a French term and was initially used to denote the frame parts or Basic Structure of the vehicle. It is the back bone of the vehicle. A vehicle with out body is called Chassis. The components of the vehicle like Power plant, Transmission System, Axles, Wheels and Tyres, Suspension, Controlling Systems like Braking, Steering etc., and also electrical system parts are mounted on the Chassis frame. It is the main mounting for all the components including the body. So it is also called as Carrying Unit.

The following main components of the Chassis are:

• Frame: it is made up of long two members called side members riveted together with the help of number of cross members.
• Engine or Power plant: It provides the source of power
• Clutch: It connects and disconnects the power from the engine fly wheel to the transmission system.
• Gear Box
• U Joint
• Propeller Shaft
• Differential

FUNCTIONS OF THE CHASSIS FRAME:

1. To carry load of the passengers or goods carried in the body.
2. To support the load of the body, engine, gear box etc.,
3. To withstand the forces caused due to the sudden braking or acceleration
4. To withstand the stresses caused due to the bad road condition.
5. To withstand centrifugal force while cornering

VARIOUS LOADS ACTING ON THE FRAME:
1. Short duration Load – While crossing a broken patch.
2. Momentary duration Load – While taking a curve.
3. Impact Loads – Due to the collision of the vehicle.
4. Inertia Load – While applying brakes.
5. Static Loads – Loads due to chassis parts.
6. Over Loads – Beyond Design capacity.

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Gorilla Glass Touch Screen

Touch screen technology in fast few years has grown drastically in various applications, in order to overcome the difficulties faced by the touch screen; a new frontier technology has to take its part to revitalize the use of touch screen. In this counterpart gorilla glass has thrown a flash light focus on touch screen technology. Gorilla Glass has taken an apt plays in touchscreen technology. This scratch repellent glass is used to form touchscreen panel for portable gadgets like ATM machines, android mobile phones, tablets, personal computers and MP3 Players. It’s designed to protect display screens from scratches, sticky oils, fractures, etc,.

Characteristics of Gorilla Glass:

• Scratch resistance
• Slimness / Thinner
• Stronger
• Improved Touch Sensitivity

Comparatively perfect fit for today’s abundance touch-screen handsets.

 

Difference between ‘Scratch- Proof ‘ and ‘Scratch Resistant’ glass:

A Scratch- screen proof is impermeable resistant to scratches. This kind of technology is not on the market however – any glass may break if it is placed under enough stress. Gorilla Glass is NOT a scratch-proof.

A Scratch- screen resistant is much stronger than most screens. It is less probable to smash/crack if dropped, and less probably to scratch if scratched. Extreme force, sharp objects, and continual exposure to abrasive oils may leave scratches.

History of Gorilla Glass:

The Gorilla Glass is the trade name of “Corning”, an United States of America Glass maker. They form the toughened glass (Alkali – Alumino Silicate Sheet) for the portable electronic gadgets. This idea generated in the 60s period as a project name, “Project Muscle”. The glass invented was called as “Chemcor” glass, which are ultra strong and light weight. The product is developed for windshield glass for cars, But the product is very costly so they are not succeeding on that time.

In the period of 2005, they again started researching with the project name of “Gorilla Glass”. In this period touch screen cell phones are popular, and the product needs a resilient, scratch resistant cell phone cover glass. At that time, the company take the idea from Chemcor glass and they start building the Gorilla glass.

After completing the research, first production starts at the period of 2007 and they got the first order in the period of 2008. At that period nearly 200 million users (about 20% of Devices) uses the gorilla glass for their cell phones. 

 

In 2012, the second generation of gorilla glass they built and launched, achieved a goal of one billion devices.

In 2013, the Third generation Gorilla Glass they launched, which are three times more resistant and stronger; 40% scratches which occur will not be visible to naked eye.

Currently Used Gorilla Glass products:

Phones

• Iphone
• HTC
• LG
• Motorolla
• Nokia
• Samsung

Tablets

• Samsung
• Blackberry
• Lenovo

Laptops

• Dell
• Sony
• Lenovo

TV’s

• Sony

Cameras

• Leica

BENEFITS:
• Glass designed for a high degree of chemical strengthening
- High compressive stress
- Deep compression layer
• High retained strength after use
• High resistance to scratch damage
• Superior surface quality
APPLICATIONS:
• Ideal protective covering for displays in
- Smart phones
- Laptop / Portable Computers and tablet computer screens
- Mobile devices
• Touchscreen devices
• Optical components
• High strength glass articles

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